I have been conducting research on the effects of Computer-Mediated Communication in foreign language learning environments, expanding my scope from my master’s and doctoral studies to now include social media.

I have some material that I am thinking of turning into a paper. I will post it here as a memo. It is a paper I read a long time ago. If you are interested, please take a look.

# This is terrible Japanese… (lol) Well, please understand that this is something I read back when I was a master’s student.

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Towards an effective use of audio conferencing in distance language courses
Language Learning & Technology January 2004, Vol.8, No.1
Regine Hampel Mirjam Hauck
The Open University, United Kingdom

Abstract
Since February 2002, The Open University has been conducting online teaching in its German courses for students across the UK using Lyceum, an internet-based audio and graphic conferencing system. This study examines the attempts made in conducting online instruction.
First, we discuss the rationale for learning in virtual spaces (Virtual Learning) and educational environments. Next, we describe the development and implementation of online instruction from the perspectives of activity design, tutor training, and student support. We also briefly discuss the evaluation of these aspects.

Introduction
Since 1997, The Open University has been investigating the benefits of using online systems that utilize audio and graphics via the internet, transitioning from traditional distance education (sending and using paper-based materials, using videotapes, cassette tapes, etc.). Currently, we have reached the point of using synchronous, interactive audio and graphic conferencing systems, which are introduced as primary teaching materials and enable oral communication.
However, because audio and graphic conferencing tools are not widely used in language education and language learning settings, there has not been much research in this field to date. Therefore, we share with researchers not only our evaluation of the experience of the delivery of tutorials but also the implications thereof.

Our evaluation consists of three parts.
1: The course website, conferencing tools, and their activities were piloted, and the evaluation was conducted by observing students’ website browsing and activity participation, as well as through student questionnaires.
2: The evaluation of tutor training was conducted through observation and questionnaires.
3: During the one-year course, group activities were observed, and volunteer students and tutors kept logbooks and provided feedback via questionnaires (for detailed evaluation, see Hampel, 2003).

Pedagogical Rationale for Audio-Graphic Conferencing
Here, we describe the conceptual framework that supports the design and use of conferencing tools in language education and language learning settings.

The first is the theory of second language acquisition.
・Language acquisition occurs when students receive comprehensible input (Krashen, 1981, 1985)
・Students must be able to interact to negotiate meaning (Gass & Varonis, 1994; Varonis & Gass, 1985)
・Students must produce comprehensible output (Swain, 1985)

Next are the implications related to CMC.
・In text-based CMC (such as chat), students speak more than in an actual classroom (Kern, 1995; Ortega, 1997)
・CMC is a tool that can promote equal participation among students (Warschauer, 1996)
・In text-based chat, there is potential for developing grammatical competence similar to that of oral communication (Pellettieri, 2000)
・CMC plays an important role in allowing students to control the conversation (Chun, 1994)

However, the question here is whether the communicative competence acquired in a text-based communication environment depends on whether it can be successfully transferred to oral communication. Many studies remain reserved on this point, stating only that text-based interaction skills may gradually be transferred to oral skills (Chun, 1994).

We also look at sociocultural learning as a “key” to learning. This refers to the ZPD. Based on the ZPD, constructivism—new learning approaches such as problem-solving and collaborative learning—has emerged, symbolizing a departure from static transmission models for acquiring knowledge and skills (Felix, 2002). Therefore, learning is…

・Considered an active and collaborative process in knowledge construction,
・An autonomous process that can be controlled by the learner’s expectations, goals, existing knowledge, and intentions,
・A process based on existing knowledge and experience,
・A process that undergoes social meaning negotiation, that is, it must be supported by an authentic environment and a rich learning environment based on the real world
(Rouschoff & Ritter, 2001)

These new approaches emphasize the importance of authentic materials and situations (Chapelle, 1999; Felix, 1999; Rouschoff & Ritter, 2001).

CMC can be said to be an ideal medium for collaborative learning through social interaction with both tutors and individuals. There are reports that this can facilitate students’ acquisition of knowledge (Furstenberg, 1997; Levy, 1997; Felix, 1998). The LEVERAGE project, which uses audio and video conferencing systems and adopts a task-based approach, reports that it is very effective in supporting collaborative work (Zahner, Fauverge, & Wong, 2000).

Students will likely be actively engaged in activities such as solving meaningful problems that reflect their personal interests, focused on their future goals. The Open University also suggests that projects can succeed by giving students more control and changing the role of the tutor.

However, another aspect that must be considered when moving from text chat to complex applications is the diverse characteristics of the new environment (Kress, 2000a, 2000b; Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001). Virtual Learning Environments (hereinafter VLE) combine various media to provide to students. By doing so, they may reveal meaningful linguistic potential (Halliday, 1986). This perspective reflects the realization of networked hypermedia environments (Chun & Plass, 2000).

Towards An Evaluation of Audio Graphic CMC
Johnston (1999) states that the flexibility that can be demonstrated by online courses is only in the asynchronous nature, allowing students to proceed at their own pace. However, several studies report that there are other benefits to using CMC. Kelm (1998) cites the ability to express oneself in natural language while providing specific instructions, the promotion of individual communication, the availability of feedback, and the ability to notice one’s own errors through communication.
Based on the insights gained from past pilots and previous research, we were able to describe research on text and audio CMC. Text-based CMC raised a number of issues. First, while CMC can promote classroom interaction and student attendance, limited or irregular participation can be perceived as a risk (Perkins, 1999). There is also insight that in text-based CMC, dominant participants can control the flow of communication and exclude some members from the group (Warschauer & Lepeintre, 1997).
There was also an increasing demand for communication tasks using authentic materials. This can be seen as an implication that communication between students and staff must be able to develop beyond mere artificial purposes (Selinger & Pearson, 1999). However, it has also been pointed out that using authentic materials may increase the burden on students (Chun & Plass, 2000).
The insights gained from the pilot at The Open University indicate that teaching in a VLE places a heavy burden (referred to as “challenging” in this book) on tutors. It requires them to build confidence in teaching in a VLE, to act like a strict parent, to be a troubleshooter, to be in a student-like position, and to be a human-like figure (Hauck & Haezewindt, 1999).
Another issue was how to compensate for body language. In a VLE, stronger anonymity appears than in face-to-face environments, spontaneity is weakened, and the communication process can take on dehumanizing characteristics (Lecourt, 1999).
Given these issues, in order to realize audio and graphic CMC, implementation must be carried out with consideration for student support, tutor training, and task design. We evaluate these points from the following perspectives.
・Evaluation of VLE developmental testing through feedback sessions and questionnaires (13 subjects)
・Evaluation of tutor training through feedback sessions and questionnaires (19 subjects)
・Evaluation of students’ and tutors’ experiences in the VLE through questionnaires, logbooks, and observation (subjects were a group of only 12 self-organized students and 6 tutors)

The Learning And Teaching Environment
・Lyceum
Lyceum—an audio and graphic conferencing tool—allows students and tutors to use headsets and microphones to collaborate in real-time while talking, but they cannot see each other. In addition to this, we prepared a traditional whiteboard (for brainstorming concept maps), language association games for vocabulary acquisition, and shared documents for collaborative work. It is also possible to create groups autonomously to enable communication in small groups.
・Website
A course website is also provided. This is used for the course overview and the delivery of the course itself. It also provides a window for information related to the course and a collection of links to other universities.
Design of Learning Activities
The design base we use this time is Holliday’s (1999) suggestion. This was created for qualitative CALL systems and can be applied to text and audio CMC. According to Holliday (1999), as a medium for learning, learners must be provided with:
・Opportunities for meaning negotiation through interaction
・Opportunities to read and listen to optimized, comprehensible input
・Input focused on the features of the target second language
・Rich context that can promote input where the second language can be understood
We must provide these.

In each activity, students are provided with materials from textbooks and selected websites. Each material is guided to obtain information from other students, thereby promoting meaning negotiation and interaction. This allows students to generate comprehensible output through conversation and writing.
The aforementioned ZPD states that collaborative work with many individuals promotes growth more than individual problem-solving, and Shneiderman (1994) states that goals such as accessing information, drills and practice, and acquiring facts do not increase motivation, but rather activities such as creation, communication, planning, investigation, construction, discovery, participation, expression, and collaboration do. Based on this, the tasks this time were designed to assume uses such as exchanging opinions, discussions for problem-solving, and preparation for joint presentations, creating a need for online meetings outside of lectures.
We also developed warm-up activities. These did not require a large amount of work, but were intended to share knowledge about the VLE, get to know each other, overcome the sense of distance, and promote collaborative work. This was intended to weaken the anonymity and abstraction caused by the VLE.

Developmental Testing
・Methodology
We had previously tested in various pilots, but we felt the need for developmental testing regarding new activities, the audio and graphic conferencing tool, and the website, so we conducted it.
At the administrative level, it was necessary to confirm whether the installation would go well and whether students would struggle with the load of the VLE. From an academic perspective, it was to confirm whether the activities were suitable for Lyceum.
In fact, the test was conducted in four 75-minute online classes, and the subjects were 15 volunteers. The first session was an introduction to the tool, the second and third were classes, and the fourth was a feedback session. The author acted as a tutor and online observer, and students used their own computers at home. Some students came to the school and carried out the activities. For those students, I observed them directly.

Findings

In the questionnaire about Lyceum, we received feedback from 13 out of 15 people regarding software installation, usage, and help desk support. The results were representative of technical issues. These included sound quality issues and audio dropout issues. There were also issues with the environment used by the users themselves, or ISP issues, which were problems before the course started.
Regarding the tasks, most students gave positive evaluations such as “very interesting, fun, and able to work well.” Some students actively utilized the web and read German materials, but some students pointed out that there was more preparation than they had expected. There were also groups of students who used the conferencing system outside of class to discuss the preparation of materials for the next time, and such groups were very active, but not all students took the time, and students who could not make time found it difficult to contribute to the discussion.
There were also comments that the warm-up activities were very useful. These activities were not linguistically demanding and were created for the purpose of getting students to master the conferencing tool, but these activities were very meaningful for the course activities.

TUTOR TRAINING

Training began two months before the start of the course to get tutors accustomed to the VLE. The training included an introduction to Lyceum’s functions and a lecture on netiquette. Such education was used to help tutors get used to using online tools, practice the theory of online teaching, and support the devising of strategies for practicing teaching.
It was also important for tutors to participate in activities from the student’s perspective, so they practiced using the software while looking ahead to how the activities would proceed.
After this lecture, they participated in an additional session to share the experience of teaching online.
Tutors also evaluated this lecture. There were 15 subjects out of 19.

Findings: Technical Problems

One-third of the tutors reported problems downloading the conferencing tool, but this was handled by distributing it on CD-ROM. Most tutors reported that the online guide was very effective. However, there were also problems such as items missing or not being in the guide. There were also tutors who wanted to call the help desk directly rather than read the guide.
Almost half of the tutors contacted the help desk before the first session started, and the help desk sometimes received calls during training sessions. The content of the inquiries included problems where hardware specs were insufficient to use the tool or problems on the ISP side. It cannot be denied that we were not always able to respond in a way that satisfied the tutors.
A very common inquiry was about sound quality. We upgraded the software before the course started, but the problem was not resolved. It is thought that this problem also depends on the headphones.

The next most common question was about ISPs. Seven tutors inquired that “sessions are frequently disconnected.” This problem occurred frequently during tutorials or around the evening.

Findings: The Training Sessions

Many tutors evaluated the initial introduction as very good for grasping the overview of the tool and getting used to it. However, this seemed to make them feel that students might feel the complexity of the tool, and they seemed to strongly recognize their own role as teaching on a VLE.
The reaction to the warm-up activities was very good. These activities contributed greatly to thinking about how to use them in class, reducing the fear of computers, and building confidence. However, one tutor reported that the time spent on these activities was too long. Another reported that some of these activities were frustrating. Tutors sometimes have a role like “frustrated parents.” In other words, they must also be aware of the misuse of CMC.
Regarding the main activities, it was reported that they were clearly very effective. This is because the structure of the activities is designed so that each learner thinks for themselves and becomes immersed in the learning process.

However, there are several concerns raised by the tutors.
・Students must do a lot of preparation to execute the tasks.
・It may be difficult even for students who are accustomed to learning.
・If students are not motivated, this session will not produce the expected results.
・If problems arise due to sound quality, discussions will stall.
・Methods to support students who fall behind must be considered.

STUDENT SUPPORT
Student support is very important for conducting online lectures. We prepared VLE information and a helpdesk online, and tutors provided support through tutorials. Many tutors interacted with students via email, but used Lyceum for individual interactions or outside of lectures.

Induction into Lyceum
It became clear that ongoing student support is necessary. Many students were not used to computers, and their computer usage was mostly limited to word processing. Therefore, we requested that students attend an initial induction session. It was clear that without that induction, the first session would not have gone well, and the burden on tutors would have increased. ICT remedial sessions were also held a few weeks before the start of the course. Even so, there were students who were absent. Many tutors focused on helping students consolidate what they had learned during the induction session. They conducted warm-up tasks and addressed them.

Helpdesk Support
Technical issues were handled by the helpdesk. Since detailed information can only be collected at the helpdesk, responses via phone or email were often not satisfactory. Issues that occurred were recorded on a two-page leaflet and saved. Online help has the disadvantage of requiring significant effort to maintain and update.
EVALUATION OF FIRST YEAR OF PRESENTATION

As an evaluation of the first year’s activities, one of us observed one tutor group, and 12 students and 6 tutors agreed to complete questionnaires and keep journals. The questionnaires were filled out on the last day of the course schedule, and the content covered the use of tools and websites, participation in activities, and both technical and support aspects of conversation practice. Details of this content are described in Hampel (2003).

Activities
According to student feedback, activities that involved intensive collaborative work with members in the same situation were very meaningful. This supports Shneiderman (1994).

Warm-up activities were also evaluated as being very useful. This is because they were valued not only for helping with German conversation but also for the authentic aspect of talking to people they did not know. There was also feedback that it was a very relaxing environment.

Opinions on the main activities were varied. Many students evaluated them as fun and useful, but there were also opinions that the preparation required was heavy, that the number of students not attending increased as the course progressed, and that the activities themselves might need to be changed as the course progresses. Regarding group work, some students pointed out the danger that dominant students would want to form small groups, and others raised concerns that in a VLE environment, there is no body language and they cannot see each other, so they cannot understand what the others are actually doing.

Regarding the tutors, they generally gave good evaluations. They were satisfied that the activities were structured to encourage discussion and that the lectures were student-centered. However, conversely, some tutors expressed concern that they could not take the initiative in the progress of the class. While this was interpreted as not necessarily a bad thing, it is considered a matter of concern. However, there were times when they were forced to bear the burden of having to deal individually with students who did not come prepared. As the lectures progressed, tutors became better able to grasp the needs of the students and began to do things like preparing text materials in advance.

Student Support
Through the induction lecture, many students felt they could handle Lyceum well. However, as suggestions for improvement, there were opinions requesting more than one induction lecture and an offline version.
Technical problems included sound quality issues and the session being frequently disconnected. Since such problems are very difficult to solve technically, the helpdesk was crowded from the beginning of the lecture. The helpdesk was very useful, but there were questionnaire results indicating that some students did not receive satisfactory support.
Tool updates were performed during the course, and sound quality issues were reduced. However, 2/3 of tutors and students answered that these technical problems had a negative effect on the learning and teaching experience.
Although Lyceum was not used by all students, those who recognized its effectiveness engaged in activities such as preparing for lectures and holding regular meetings among members.
Email was effective when communicating between individuals. Examples include preparing for lectures, sending project drafts, and coordinating meeting schedules.

CONCLUSION

We have evaluated the pilot course using audio and graphic conferencing tools from the perspectives of task design, tutor training, and student support. While there were highly rated points, there are many issues such as technical problems. We list suggestions raised for using technology effectively.
・Improvement of sound quality
・Change of recommended specifications
・Recommendation of additional devices
・Employment of tutors for technical induction lectures
・Unification of contact points
・Updating the tool about once a week
・Direct link from Lyceum to support
・Distribution of CD-ROMs containing lectures for self-study
・Automation of setup and automatic booking function for lectures

Regarding tasks, we will provide offline self-study time so that students can prepare for lectures. We will also add new lectures. We will consider making the new lectures student-led types that incorporate collaborative elements as well.

The suggestions obtained from our experience using audio and graphic conferencing tools are shown below.
・Communicate with students at the beginning and during lectures
・Training in teaching methods, staff development
・Conduct comprehensive development tests early on
・Sufficient ICT support
・Design of the website used by students
・Establish a sufficient support system for ongoing problems
・Continue to evaluate task design

We believe these are the critically important points.